

Grammar


Tenses


Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous


Past

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous


Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous


Parts Of Speech


Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Animate and Inanimate nouns

Nouns


Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Verbs


Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adverbs


Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective


Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pronouns


Pre Position


Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition


Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

prepositions


Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

conjunctions


Interjections

Express calling interjection

Phrases

Sentences


Grammar Rules

Passive and Active

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Demonstratives

Determiners


Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology

Semiotics


Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced


Teaching Methods

Teaching Strategies

Assessment
All the world is a continuum
المؤلف:
P. John McWhorter
المصدر:
The Story of Human Language
الجزء والصفحة:
28-31
2024-01-23
781
All the world is a continuum
A. As standard languages shade into dialects, dialects shade into creoles, while languages often shade into one another via chains of dialects. The sense a language map gives us of “languages” checkering the globe often corresponding to country boundaries, then, is highly misrepresentative (although inevitable).
B. For example, “Spanish” is a bundle of dialects in Spain. Spanish shades into Portuguese through the Galician dialect(s). In the New World, there are hundreds of Latin American dialects of Spanish. In Ecuador, Spanish intertwined with Quechua and resulted in Media Lengua. There are two creole Spanishes in the New World, Papiamentu and Palenquero of Colombia, where Spanish began again mixed with African languages. In the Philippines, there is a dialect cluster of Spanish creoles. In the United States, a new dialect of Spanish is emerging that borrows heavily from English: Spanglish. Meanwhile, there are Portuguese dialects in Brazil, Africa, and Southeast Asia; the one in Brazil has semi-creole varieties as a legacy of its slave plantation beginnings. There are various Portuguese creoles in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.
C. The same kind of reality is true for a great many “languages” in the world. All people speak complex varieties of language, differing in clinal degree from one another and often not assignable as any one “thing.”
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