Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Simple
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
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Nouns
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Singular and Plural nouns
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Nouns gender
Nouns definition
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Abstract nouns
Common nouns
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Definition Of Nouns
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Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
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Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
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Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pronouns
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
prepositions
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
conjunctions
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Phrases
Sentences
Grammar Rules
Passive and Active
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Demonstratives
Determiners
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Assessment
Germanic in England
المؤلف:
P. John McWhorter
المصدر:
The Story of Human Language
الجزء والصفحة:
4-25
2024-01-20
1067
+
-
20
Germanic in England
A. Proto-Germanic split into three branches, and some of the peoples who spoke the western one settled in England. (Their relatives today in the Netherlands speak Frisian and Dutch.) The language they developed, Anglo-Saxon or Old English, was one much like German.
B. But it did not stay this way. Part of the reason was the massive influx of borrowed words. But English also changed its grammar considerably. Today, English is not only the one Germanic language that has lost all gender marking but also the only Indo-European language of all Europe without it. English is the only Germanic language without the inherent reflexives: in German, one remembers oneself, one hurries oneself, but in English, one simply remembers and hurries. I noted that English no longer makes any distinction between here and hither, where and whither, and so on. However, all of the other Germanic languages do. There are many other cases like this in English.
C. English is, in this sense, somewhat simpler than German, Dutch, Swedish, and its other sister languages. English was learned as a second language more than as a first, then passed down in this fashion. Specifically, it was likely in the northern half of England after the Viking invasions at the end of the 8th century that English was streamlined in this way.
What is English? English, then, is a descendant of Proto-Indo-European that, along the way toward its emergence, lost most of its case endings and a third of its vocabulary. It replaced that vocabulary with words from a language possibly related to Arabic and Hebrew, then supplemented this with words from, most copiously, Old Norse, Norman French, Dutch, Latin, and Greek. Meanwhile, it was learned so much as a second language by Vikings that its grammar was restrained somewhat from the overgrowth typical of languages that develop uninterrupted. A lot can happen to a language in 4,500 years!
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