

Grammar


Tenses


Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous


Past

Past Simple

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous


Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous


Parts Of Speech


Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Animate and Inanimate nouns

Nouns


Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Verbs


Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adverbs


Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective


Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pronouns


Pre Position


Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition


Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

prepositions


Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

conjunctions


Interjections

Express calling interjection

Phrases

Sentences


Grammar Rules

Passive and Active

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Demonstratives

Determiners


Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

Phonetics and Phonology

Semiotics


Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced


Teaching Methods

Teaching Strategies

Assessment
Comparing proto-language forms
المؤلف:
P. John McWhorter
المصدر:
The Story of Human Language
الجزء والصفحة:
57-12
2024-01-12
995
Comparing proto-language forms
A. Greenberg and Ruhlen deduce not from hundreds of languages together but from words in the proto-languages that have been deduced, like Proto-Indo-European, for each family. But even here, their conception of “similarity” leads to questions.
B. Here are 12 proto-language forms for water. Greenberg and Ruhlen reconstruct from these that the Proto-World form would have been *aq’wa.
Evidence for Proto-World aq’wa for water as reconstructed in 12 family proto-languages:

C. *akwā, *ak’wa, and *‘oχwa are clearly similar, but they are from, respectively, Proto-Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, and Caucasian. The problem is that these families all arose in regions close to one another— southern Russia, the Middle East, the Caucasus mountains. It is possible that these families share a common ancestor, then— but this is just three out of a great many families in the world. Their ancestor was not the world’s first language – it would have been one of legions of descendants of that first language.
D. *akwā is only the proto-form for Algonquian, but Greenberg and Ruhlen present it as a proto-form for most of the languages of North America. Beyond Algonquian, in assorted Native American languages, we find forms for water (and related meanings) as disparate as uk, yokha, ‘aha’, ku’u, iagup, uku-mi, and oxi’.
الاكثر قراءة في Linguistics fields
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