The suffix -ing has a wide range of uses. It is part of the imperfective aspect marker, be -ing. It is used to mark adjectives derived from verbs (such as exhausting) and also nouns derived from verbs (such as happening). It is used to mark the verb in two kinds of complement clause, the ING and the FROM ING types. There are a number of other clause types marked just by -ing on the verb, which it will be useful to mention briefly here.

(a) With go and come. Just these two verbs, which refer to motion to and away from the focus of attention, may be followed by a -ing verb, as in We all went shopping, and Come swimming with me. In this construction, go and come behave like secondary verbs.

(b) With a SPEED adjective. When an adjective from this semantic type functions as copula complement, it can be followed by a preposition such as at plus an NP, as in She is quick at arithmetic. In place of the NP there can be an ING complement clause, and the preposition may then be omitted; for example, She was quick (at) solving the problem, He was slow (at) asking for a rise.

(c) With a HUMAN PROPENSITY adjective. Items from this semantic type are typically followed by a preposition plus an ING complement clause. When the complement clause has the same subject as the main clause, the preposition can often be omitted. For example, He was proud (of) winning the prize, She was generous (in) giving us her old car, She was lucky (in) finding the money, He was happy (at) working on the problem. Note, however, that the preposition cannot be omitted if the two clauses have different subjects, as in Mary was proud of her daughter winning the prize.

(d) Reduced time adverbial clauses. A time clause commencing with after having can omit the after; for example (After) having made his will, John slashed his wrists, and Mary made an offer for the house (after) having inspected it. Similarly, a time clause commencing with while, followed by a verb in -ing form, can omit the while, as in (While) leaving the room, he tripped over the doormat, and She announced her wedding date, (while) blushing slightly.

The simultaneous appositional clauses in (14), (15b–e) and (16a–c) are also of this type.

Note that in all of (a)–(d), the -ing clause which apparently stands alone must have the same subject as the main clause.

(e) Appositional clauses of consequence and reason. Something which follows as a consequence from what is said in the main clause may be expressed by a following clause with the verb in -ing form, as in:

(75) The trains were on strike, (this) forcing us to travel by bus

The unstated subject of the -ing clause refers to the preceding main clause. Another example is The meeting finished early, (this) enabling us to have a drink together.

Note that (75) can be restated with the subordinate clause as main clause:

(75’) The trains being on strike, we were forced to go by bus

This is an appositional clause of reason. Whereas (75) has the structure ‘[Main clause] and as a consequence [-ing clause]’, with the subject of the -ing clause effectively being the main clause, (75’) is ‘[-ing clause] and as a result main clause’, where both clauses have a stated subject.

When an appositional clause of reason involves being, this may on occasion be omitted; for example, The job (being) finished, we went off for a drink.

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